China's Rural-Urban Divide

Examining the social geography of China's "Left-Behind Children" and the impact of the Hukou policy.

ABSTRACT

China’s rapid economic transformation has intensified rural–urban inequalities and contributed to the emergence of the country’s ‘left-behind children’: children who remain in rural communities while their parents migrate to urban areas for employment. This article examines the social geography of this phenomenon, focusing particularly on the role of China’s hukou (household registration) system in shaping patterns of internal migration, family separation, and access to public services. While the Hukou system was originally introduced to regulate population movement and distribute resources, its distinction between rural and urban citizenship has contributed to spatial inequalities and the formation of translocal households. The article also considers the linguistic distinction between the Chinese concept of 留守 (liúshǒu), which can be interpreted as ‘hold the fort,' and the English term ‘left behind', questioning assumptions of abandonment and highlighting children’s continuing connections to their rural communities and cultural identities. Although recent Hukou reforms have sought to link access to education, healthcare, and housing to long-term residence rather than registration status, significant disparities remain due to uneven local implementation and financial capacity. The article therefore argues that the ‘left-behind children’ phenomenon cannot be attributed to Hukou alone but should instead be understood as the outcome of intersecting economic, institutional, and geographical inequalities.

Introduction: China's "Left-Behind" Children

The term “left-behind children” describes children whose parents migrate from rural areas to work in Chinese cities, leaving them in the care of relatives in their home communities. The phenomenon grew alongside China's economic reforms during the 1980s, when approximately 260 million people were estimated to be living in poverty and considerable socioeconomic inequalities separated rural and urban communities. The one-child policy also led to greater inequalities within the household-registration system. Children born outside the permitted birth quota could be denied household registration, which would ultimately limit their access to public services such as education and healthcare. According to the Stanford Rural Education Action Programme, this is reality for 1 in 5 children in China.

Section 1: How the Hukou System Divides Families

China's hukou, or household-registration system, classifies individuals as rural or urban residents according to their registered household location. "The system was introduced to regulate internal migration and prevent overcrowding in major cities, as well as to allocate resources. However, this has also reinforced spatial inequality by restricting migrants' access to education, healthcare and welfare services in the cities they work in. As a result, there is a widening socioeconomic gap between rural regions and urban megaregions. The system has also contributed to the creation of translocal households, in which families are spread across multiple geographic regions. Consequently, these families may experience institutional vulnerability, as legal restrictions reduce their access to public services and negatively impact their wellbeing. The Hukou system has contributed to the rural-urban divide in Chinese society. Additionally, as there is a high cost of living in the city, the working parents cannot afford to move their entire family from the rural region to the city. However, parents generally migrate to the cities in search of higher incomes and better education and healthcare opportunities for their families. In contradiction, government policies concerning public access to those services can prevent their children from accompanying them and benefiting from these services.

Section 2: Liushou and the Language of “Being Left Behind”

In Mandarin, liushou (留守) means 'to hold the fort’, which connotes that the children are not victims of the parents leaving but instead act as guardians within their rural home village where they have their cultural ties. This contrasts to the English translation of the term, which is ‘left behind’, suggesting there is abandonment or neglect involved.

Section 4: Conclusion

Ultimately, the phenomenon of ‘left-behind children’ can therefore be partly explained by the institutional structure of the hukou system. However, due to it structurally externalising the costs of migrant labour, it cannot be understood solely on that basis. Recent reforms to the policy include that basic public services such as housing, healthcare, and education are now associated with a person’s long-term residence, instead of their official Hukou location, as it previously was. National policy reforms may signal a move towards more inclusive citizenship in urban regions. However, implementation depends heavily on local governments and their funds, as many may struggle to finance a public services expansion. Consequently, reforms are most likely to produce uneven results across China and its regions.

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Article by Marli Olton

Edited by Ceylin Deniz G